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	<title>Legal Frontiers: McGill&#039;s Blog on International Law &#187; Targeted Killings</title>
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		<title>Is it ever legal to kidnap your enemies?</title>
		<link>http://www.legalfrontiers.ca/2011/04/is-it-ever-legal-to-kidnap-your-enemies/</link>
		<comments>http://www.legalfrontiers.ca/2011/04/is-it-ever-legal-to-kidnap-your-enemies/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Thu, 14 Apr 2011 02:20:28 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Daniel Haboucha</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Humanitarian]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[abduction]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Abu Sisi]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[geneva conventions]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Hamas]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Hamdi]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[ICRC]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Israel]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Shalit]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Targeted Killings]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://www.legalfrontiers.ca/?p=2040</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[<p>Palestinian engineer Dirar Abu Sisi was <a href="https://exchange.mcgill.ca/owa/redir.aspx?C=29efa231d15f48a28c4f65686d54acdc&#38;URL=http%3a%2f%2fwww.haaretz.com%2fnews%2fdiplomacy-defense%2fisrael-files-indictment-against-alleged-palestinian-father-of-rockets-1.354030">indicted in Israel last week</a> on nine terrorism-related charges, after over a month in prison. Because of the gag order that has been imposed on his case, many of the details remain unknown, but speculation abounds. Did Abu Sisi develop advanced weapons for Hamas to use against Israel? Is he even a member of Hamas? Does he know the whereabouts of abducted Israeli soldier Gilad Shalit?</p>
<p>The controversy surrounding the case stems largely from the circumstances leading to Abu Sisi’s detention: according to <a href="https://exchange.mcgill.ca/owa/redir.aspx?C=29efa231d15f48a28c4f65686d54acdc&#38;URL=http%3a%2f%2fwww.abc.net.au%2fpm%2fcontent%2f2011%2fs3180272.htm">credible reports</a>, he was abducted by Israeli agents from a train while visiting his wife in Ukraine. The similarity in the fates of their loved ones, both abducted and detained (or, in the words of some, kidnapped) by enemy forces in the course of Israeli-Palestinian hostilities was surely not lost on Shalit’s father or Abu Sisi’s wife, who <a href="https://exchange.mcgill.ca/owa/redir.aspx?C=29efa231d15f48a28c4f65686d54acdc&#38;URL=http%3a%2f%2fwww.haaretz.com%2fnews%2fdiplomacy-defense%2fgilad-shalit-s-father-to-abu-sisi-family-urge-hamas-to-release-gilad-1.353323">spoke by phone</a> earlier this week.</p>
<p>Disregarding for the moment the apparent Israeli violation of Ukrainian sovereignty and the corresponding breach of art. 2 of the <a href="https://exchange.mcgill.ca/owa/redir.aspx?C=29efa231d15f48a28c4f65686d54acdc&#38;URL=http%3a%2f%2fwww.un.org%2fen%2fdocuments%2fcharter%2fchapter1.shtml">United Nations Charter</a>, which will surely have diplomatic repercussions for Israel if the reports are shown to be true (Ukrainian Prime Minister Nikolai Azarov <a href="https://exchange.mcgill.ca/owa/redir.aspx?C=29efa231d15f48a28c4f65686d54acdc&#38;URL=http%3a%2f%2fwww.haaretz.com%2fprint-edition%2ffeatures%2fukraine-pm-i-don-t-want-to-imagine-israeli-kidnapping-on-our-soil-1.349702">said on a recent visit to Israel</a> that he “doesn’t want to imagine” that possibility), I wish to consider here the legality of abduction missions within the framework&#8230;</p>]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Palestinian engineer Dirar Abu Sisi was <a href="https://exchange.mcgill.ca/owa/redir.aspx?C=29efa231d15f48a28c4f65686d54acdc&amp;URL=http%3a%2f%2fwww.haaretz.com%2fnews%2fdiplomacy-defense%2fisrael-files-indictment-against-alleged-palestinian-father-of-rockets-1.354030">indicted in Israel last week</a> on nine terrorism-related charges, after over a month in prison. Because of the gag order that has been imposed on his case, many of the details remain unknown, but speculation abounds. Did Abu Sisi develop advanced weapons for Hamas to use against Israel? Is he even a member of Hamas? Does he know the whereabouts of abducted Israeli soldier Gilad Shalit?</p>
<p>The controversy surrounding the case stems largely from the circumstances leading to Abu Sisi’s detention: according to <a href="https://exchange.mcgill.ca/owa/redir.aspx?C=29efa231d15f48a28c4f65686d54acdc&amp;URL=http%3a%2f%2fwww.abc.net.au%2fpm%2fcontent%2f2011%2fs3180272.htm">credible reports</a>, he was abducted by Israeli agents from a train while visiting his wife in Ukraine. The similarity in the fates of their loved ones, both abducted and detained (or, in the words of some, kidnapped) by enemy forces in the course of Israeli-Palestinian hostilities was surely not lost on Shalit’s father or Abu Sisi’s wife, who <a href="https://exchange.mcgill.ca/owa/redir.aspx?C=29efa231d15f48a28c4f65686d54acdc&amp;URL=http%3a%2f%2fwww.haaretz.com%2fnews%2fdiplomacy-defense%2fgilad-shalit-s-father-to-abu-sisi-family-urge-hamas-to-release-gilad-1.353323">spoke by phone</a> earlier this week.</p>
<p>Disregarding for the moment the apparent Israeli violation of Ukrainian sovereignty and the corresponding breach of art. 2 of the <a href="https://exchange.mcgill.ca/owa/redir.aspx?C=29efa231d15f48a28c4f65686d54acdc&amp;URL=http%3a%2f%2fwww.un.org%2fen%2fdocuments%2fcharter%2fchapter1.shtml">United Nations Charter</a>, which will surely have diplomatic repercussions for Israel if the reports are shown to be true (Ukrainian Prime Minister Nikolai Azarov <a href="https://exchange.mcgill.ca/owa/redir.aspx?C=29efa231d15f48a28c4f65686d54acdc&amp;URL=http%3a%2f%2fwww.haaretz.com%2fprint-edition%2ffeatures%2fukraine-pm-i-don-t-want-to-imagine-israeli-kidnapping-on-our-soil-1.349702">said on a recent visit to Israel</a> that he “doesn’t want to imagine” that possibility), I wish to consider here the legality of abduction missions within the framework of international humanitarian law (IHL) generally, and as applied to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict specifically.</p>
<p>To begin with, it is worth briefly considering whether and to what extent IHL is actually an appropriate normative framework on which to base this analysis. A far more exhaustive discussion on this question can be found in the 2005 <a href="https://exchange.mcgill.ca/owa/redir.aspx?C=29efa231d15f48a28c4f65686d54acdc&amp;URL=http%3a%2f%2felyon1.court.gov.il%2fFiles_ENG%2f02%2f690%2f007%2fa34%2f02007690.a34.htm"><em>Targeted Killings</em></a> decision of the Israeli High Court, but two key points should be noted : 1) The ongoing hostilities being waged between Israel and the disparate Palestinian factions, most notably Hamas, are of sufficient intensity and severity to be regulated by IHL, which is the primary body of law regulating the conduct of armed conflict, until such time as the occupation comes to an end (art. 3(b) <a href="https://exchange.mcgill.ca/owa/redir.aspx?C=29efa231d15f48a28c4f65686d54acdc&amp;URL=http%3a%2f%2fwww.icrc.org%2fihl.nsf%2f7c4d08d9b287a42141256739003e636b%2ff6c8b9fee14a77fdc125641e0052b079">Additional Protocol I</a>). 2) An armed conflict which involves military occupation is automatically characterized as an international armed conflict (common art. 2, Geneva Conventions), meaning that the entire body of IHL, including all of the Geneva Conventions, applies to the situation in question.</p>
<p>IHL recognizes that in the course of hostilities, combatants may be detained by an adverse party; in an international armed conflict, combatants who qualify for prisoner of war status under art. 4(A) of <a href="https://exchange.mcgill.ca/owa/redir.aspx?C=29efa231d15f48a28c4f65686d54acdc&amp;URL=http%3a%2f%2fwww.icrc.org%2fihl.nsf%2fFULL%2f375%3fOpenDocument">Geneva Convention III</a> are entitled to the protections of that Convention, whereas those who do not are entitled to certain minimum protections under art. 75 of API (to which Israel is not a party, but many of whose provisions—including the aforementioned—in any event reflect binding customary law). None of these protections preclude prosecution for terrorism offenses (which in IHL parlance generally constitute war crimes), subject to the procedural guarantees of art. 75(4) API (in the case of international armed conflicts) and the far more limited protections of common art. 3 (in the case of non-international armed conflicts).</p>
<p>While it is relatively clear from the above that the detention of enemy combatants is tolerated under IHL, some scholars have gone further and argued that common art. 3 in fact authorizes the detention of enemy combatants by listing it as one of the mechanisms by which combatants can be placed <em>hors de combat</em>. In <a href="https://exchange.mcgill.ca/owa/redir.aspx?C=29efa231d15f48a28c4f65686d54acdc&amp;URL=http%3a%2f%2fcaselaw.lp.findlaw.com%2fscripts%2fgetcase.pl%3fcourt%3dUS%26vol%3d000%26invol%3d03-6696%26friend"><em>Hamdi v. Rumsfeld</em></a>, the US Supreme Court affirmed that, in its understanding, the right to detain enemy fighters is inherent in the use of armed force.</p>
<p>According to the <a href="https://exchange.mcgill.ca/owa/redir.aspx?C=29efa231d15f48a28c4f65686d54acdc&amp;URL=http%3a%2f%2fwww.icrc.org%2fWeb%2feng%2fsiteeng0.nsf%2fhtmlall%2fdirect-participation-report_res%2f%24File%2fdirect-participation-guidance-2009-icrc.pdf">guidelines</a> published by the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), members of non-state organized armed groups which are a party to the conflict may be targeted by the adverse party in the same manner as combatants belonging to state armed forces; that is, they can legitimately be targeted at any time while the conflict is ongoing, whether they are actively participating in hostilities or not, subject to the principles of precaution and proportionality. In contrast, enemy civilians may only be targeted if and for such time as they directly participate in hostilities (art. 51(3) API). According to the ICRC, the difference between civilian attacks and those of organized armed groups is that the former are inherently spontaneous, sporadic, and unorganized. While for targeting purposes the ICRC guidelines treat anyone as a member of an organized armed group whose continuous function involves taking direct part in hostilities, <a href="https://exchange.mcgill.ca/owa/redir.aspx?C=29efa231d15f48a28c4f65686d54acdc&amp;URL=http%3a%2f%2fwww.brennancenter.org%2fcontent%2fresource%2fwho_can_be_detained_in_the_war_on_terror%2f">US courts</a> have extended membership in an armed group to anyone who “receives and executes orders from the enemy force’s combat apparatus.”</p>
<p>Given that Hamas regularly engages in attacks against Israel of some intensity, that it has an organized leadership structure, and that it purports to many of the functions of government, it can clearly be considered an organized armed group for the purposes of the ICRC guidelines on targeting. Any Hamas member who regularly participates in direct attacks against Israel may therefore be targeted at any point in the conflict, but the US and ICRC approaches diverge on whether this should extend to Hamas members serving in support or logistical roles (though it is generally agreed that Hamas members who do not take orders from the “combat apparatus” of the organization may not be targeted except and for such time as they directly participate in hostilities).</p>
<p>All serving members of the Israeli Defense Forces, the latter being a state armed force, can of course be targeted at any time during the course of the conflict, with the exception of medical and religious personnel (art. 43 API). Off-duty reservists <a href="https://exchange.mcgill.ca/owa/redir.aspx?C=29efa231d15f48a28c4f65686d54acdc&amp;URL=http%3a%2f%2fwww.unhcr.org%2frefworld%2fcountry%2c%2cHRW%2c%2cPSE%2c%2c3dc9379d4%2c0.html">are to be treated as civilians</a>.</p>
<p>If Abu Sisi is indeed a member of Hamas who has regularly taken part in (ICRC) or supported (US Supreme Court) attacks against Israel, then he and Shalit can both be considered to have been belligerents at the time of their capture and as such legitimate targets for abduction. Both he and Shalit were captured during the course of an ongoing international armed conflict (and the fact that Abu Sisi’s abduction took place “off the battlefield” and in the territory of a neutral state is irrelevant for the present discussion). Neither his abduction nor Shalit’s incurred collateral damage, and so both can be said to have been carried out with due regard for the principles of precaution and proportionality. And so—in contrast with Israeli abductions of Palestinians inside the Occupied Territories (which can arguably derive authorization from art. 78 of <a href="https://exchange.mcgill.ca/owa/redir.aspx?C=29efa231d15f48a28c4f65686d54acdc&amp;URL=http%3a%2f%2fwww.icrc.org%2fihl.nsf%2fFULL%2f380%3fOpenDocument">Geneva Convention IV</a>), or certain other famous Israeli abductions (such as that of Adolf Eichmann, which took place outside the context of an armed conflict)—I can see no basis in IHL for drawing a legal distinction between the abductions of Abu Sisi and Shalit. Both, under IHL, are equally legal.</p>
<p>Of course, this discussion would be incomplete without noting that IHL also obliges the belligerent parties to accord enemy detainees the protections stipulated by the Third Geneva Convention, art. 75 API, or common art. 3 as the case may be; while Israel so far appears to have adhered to this obligation, Hamas (in this matter as in all others) has shown absolutely no respect for or intention to abide by the laws of war.</p>
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		<title>Les assassinats ciblés au regard du droit international: légaux ou pas?</title>
		<link>http://www.legalfrontiers.ca/2010/05/targeted-killings-legal-or-not/</link>
		<comments>http://www.legalfrontiers.ca/2010/05/targeted-killings-legal-or-not/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Sun, 30 May 2010 04:01:30 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Martin Hétu</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Human Rights]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Humanitarian]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Assassinats ciblés]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Assassinats ciblés par les forces israéliennes]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Droit à la vie]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Droit humanitaire international]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Droit international relatif aux droits de l'homme]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[International humanitarian law]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[International law of human rights]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Israeli targeted killings]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Nils Melzer]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Right to life]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Targeted Killings]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://www.legalfrontiers.ca/?p=1086</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[<p>Depuis que les États-Unis ont déclaré leur « guerre contre la terreur » suite aux événements du 11 septembre 2001, de multiples attaques ciblant spécifiquement une personne ou un groupe ont été exécutées sur le territoire d’un État étranger. Notamment en ce qui concerne le conflit israélo-palestinien, au cours duquel la Force israélienne de défense a rendu publics ses agissements, n’hésitant pas à organiser l’assassinat de dirigeants de groupes de l’opposition palestinienne présumés avoir commis des actes terroristes. Les assassinats ciblés forment donc un problème préoccupant sur le plan juridique à une époque où les techniques et stratégies de guerre ne cessent d’évoluer.</p>
<p> </p>
<p>Nils Melzer, conseiller juridique au Comité international de la Croix-Rouge et auteur du livre <em>Targeted Killing in International Law</em>, définit un assassinat ciblé comme l’utilisation d’une force létale par un sujet de droit international et dirigée à l’encontre d’une personne individuellement sélectionnée n’étant pas détenue.  Cette force doit être intentionnelle (plutôt que négligente ou insouciante), préméditée (plutôt que simplement volontaire) et délibérée (dans le sens que la mort de la personne ciblée est le but ultime de l’opération, à l’opposé du cas où la mort bien qu’intentionnelle et préméditée demeure le résultat accidentel d’une opération poursuivant un tout autre but)<a href="http://www.legalfrontiers.ca/wp-admin/#_ftn1">[1]</a>. Ces attaques posent d’épineux problèmes lorsque considérées en vertu du droit humanitaire international et du droit international des droits humains. La communauté juridique internationale est d’ailleurs divisée&#8230;</p>]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Depuis que les États-Unis ont déclaré leur « guerre contre la terreur » suite aux événements du 11 septembre 2001, de multiples attaques ciblant spécifiquement une personne ou un groupe ont été exécutées sur le territoire d’un État étranger. Notamment en ce qui concerne le conflit israélo-palestinien, au cours duquel la Force israélienne de défense a rendu publics ses agissements, n’hésitant pas à organiser l’assassinat de dirigeants de groupes de l’opposition palestinienne présumés avoir commis des actes terroristes. Les assassinats ciblés forment donc un problème préoccupant sur le plan juridique à une époque où les techniques et stratégies de guerre ne cessent d’évoluer.</p>
<p> </p>
<p>Nils Melzer, conseiller juridique au Comité international de la Croix-Rouge et auteur du livre <em>Targeted Killing in International Law</em>, définit un assassinat ciblé comme l’utilisation d’une force létale par un sujet de droit international et dirigée à l’encontre d’une personne individuellement sélectionnée n’étant pas détenue.  Cette force doit être intentionnelle (plutôt que négligente ou insouciante), préméditée (plutôt que simplement volontaire) et délibérée (dans le sens que la mort de la personne ciblée est le but ultime de l’opération, à l’opposé du cas où la mort bien qu’intentionnelle et préméditée demeure le résultat accidentel d’une opération poursuivant un tout autre but)<a href="http://www.legalfrontiers.ca/wp-admin/#_ftn1">[1]</a>. Ces attaques posent d’épineux problèmes lorsque considérées en vertu du droit humanitaire international et du droit international des droits humains. La communauté juridique internationale est d’ailleurs divisée sur la question de la légalité de telles tactiques anti-terroristes et ne s’accorde pas sur les éléments déterminants et sur l’application d’un régime en particulier<a href="http://www.legalfrontiers.ca/wp-admin/#_ftn2">[2]</a>. Des questions telles que la présence d’un conflit armé entraînant l’application du droit international humanitaire, la définition de ce qui constitue la participation directe par un civil aux hostilités, les implications de la souveraineté d’un État sur son territoire lorsque des attaques y sont commises et finalement l’applicabilité des paradigmes militaires et de mise en application de la loi doivent donc éventuellement être prises en compte afin de déterminer la légalité d’un assassinat ciblé en droit international.</p>
<p> </p>
<p>Les assassinats ciblés entraînent possiblement une violation du droit à la vie, mentionné au sein de plusieurs traités sur les droits de l’homme et de déclarations universelles<a href="http://www.legalfrontiers.ca/wp-admin/#_ftn3">[3]</a>. L’article 6(1) du <em>Pacte international relatif aux droits civils et politiques</em> prévoit notamment que tout être humain a un droit inhérent à la vie et que ce droit doit être protégé par la loi. Il est d’ailleurs reconnu dans le droit international relatif aux droits humains que l’on ne peut déroger à ce principe. L’utilisation d’une force mortelle à l’encontre d’un terroriste sans avoir préalablement rencontré les conditions du paradigme de mise en application de la loi (un traitement équitable, imminence et nécessité absolue) formerait donc fort probablement une atteinte arbitraire au droit à la vie<a href="http://www.legalfrontiers.ca/wp-admin/#_ftn4">[4]</a>. Toutefois, selon le droit humanitaire international, les combattants participant directement à un conflit armé peuvent être tués sans qu’un État impliqué dans le conflit n’ait à respecter l’obligation de traitement équitable et autres obligations judiciaires. La Cour internationale de justice s’étant récemment penchée sur ce problème, a statué dans son <em>Avis consultatif sur les armes nucléaires</em> que le droit d’être protégé d’une atteinte arbitraire au droit à la vie ne cesse pas en temps de guerre. La Cour a cependant affirmé que le test permettant de définir ce en quoi consiste une atteinte arbitraire au droit à la vie est déterminé par la <em>lex specialis</em> applicable. Dans le cas d’un conflit armé, la <em>lex specialis</em> serait le droit humanitaire international et l’assassinat ciblé de participants à un conflit armé sans qu’il n’y ait eu tenue d’un procès pourrait donc être considéré légal si le droit et les principes gouvernant la conduite des hostilités sont respectés<a href="http://www.legalfrontiers.ca/wp-admin/#_ftn5">[5]</a>.</p>
<p> </p>
<p>Les auteurs s’accordent pour reconnaître que le débat sur la légalité des assassinats ciblés doit être approché au moyen de deux paradigmes : mise en application de la loi et action militaire (auquel on réfère parfois comme le paradigme des hostilités)<a href="http://www.legalfrontiers.ca/wp-admin/#_ftn6">[6]</a>. Le paradigme de mise en application de la loi est basé sur une perception des actions anti-terroristes comme ne faisant pas partie d’un conflit armé. Ces frappes calculées s’apparenteraient plutôt à de la répression criminelle<a href="http://www.legalfrontiers.ca/wp-admin/#_ftn7">[7]</a>. Selon ce point de vue, les assassinats ciblés doivent donc avoir une base légale dans le droit domestique ainsi que le droit international des droits de l’homme. De plus, Nils Melzer, dans son livre, tente d’établir une liste de critères devant servir à la détermination de la légalité des assassinats ciblés vus sous l’angle de ce paradigme : les assassinats doivent être préventifs plutôt que punitifs, la protection de la vie humaine dans le cas d’une attaque éventuelle par la cible doit être l’unique objectif de l’opération, l’attaque doit être absolument nécessaire en termes qualitatif, quantitatif et temporel afin d’atteindre cet objectif et doit être le résultat indésirable d’une opération planifiée et conduite dans le but constant d’éviter l’utilisation d’une force mortelle<a href="http://www.legalfrontiers.ca/wp-admin/#_ftn8">[8]</a>. Cet auteur avance donc que l’atteinte intentionnelle, délibérée et préméditée au droit à la vie en laquelle consiste presque toujours un assassinat ciblé serait illégale en vertu du paradigme de mise en application de la loi. De plus, selon l’article 2(4) de la <em>Charte des Nations Unies</em>,<em> </em>tout État a l’obligation de respecter la souveraineté territoriale d’un autre État et un assassinat ciblé commis sur le territoire d’un autre État pourrait être interprété comme une attaque contre cet État si ce dernier n’avait pas préalablement donné son consentement<a href="http://www.legalfrontiers.ca/wp-admin/#_ftn9">[9]</a>.</p>
<p> </p>
<p>Si les assassinats ciblés semblent à prime abord paraître illégaux, une autre école de pensée s’en tient au paradigme militaire afin de proposer l’idée inverse. Elle perçoit les actions anti-terroristes plutôt comme des actions militaires faisant partie d’une lutte constante contre le terrorisme au sein d’un conflit armé et les assassinats ciblés seraient alors nécessaires à la prévention d’attaques futures<a href="http://www.legalfrontiers.ca/wp-admin/#_ftn10">[10]</a>. Son analyse est dominée par le droit humanitaire international puisqu’un conflit d’une violence atteignant le niveau requis pour être qualifié de conflit armé entraîne son application. Cela étant vrai indépendamment du fait que le conflit soit de nature internationale ou pas<a href="http://www.legalfrontiers.ca/wp-admin/#_ftn11">[11]</a>. Sous ce paradigme, le droit à l’auto-défense prévu à l’article 51 de la <em>Charte des Nations Unies</em> est bien souvent utilisé afin de justifier ces frappes ciblées. Toutefois, le principe fondamental de distinction, codifié et reconnu en droit humanitaire international, requière que les civils soient protégés à moins qu’ils ne participent aux hostilités et jusqu’à ce qu’ils arrêtent d’y participer<a href="http://www.legalfrontiers.ca/wp-admin/#_ftn12">[12]</a>. Vu sous l’angle de ce paradigme, l’assassinat d’un civil prenant part au conflit serait donc légal. Cependant, la difficulté vient du fait que la participation directe aux hostilités n’ait pas encore été définie clairement au sein du droit international. Je ne peux me résoudre à accepter que toute action jugée être pour le bénéfice d’une cause terroriste puisse entraîner la permission d’assassiner légalement un individu partout dans le monde. Cela serait dévastateur pour la situation des droits de l’homme sur notre planète et cela même à une époque où les techniques et technologies de guerre ne cessent d’évoluer et d’être perfectionnées rendant de telles frappes beaucoup plus faciles qu’autrefois. Le principe du traitement équitable est un principe fondamental des droits de l’homme et je crois que cela serait s’aventurer sur une pente dangereusement glissante que d’assimiler la lutte contre le terrorisme à un conflit armé dans le seul but de faire disparaître certains individus.</p>
<p> </p>
<p>Selon le paradigme militaire, les assassinats ciblés, pour être légaux, devraient tout de même être en accord avec les principes reconnus du droit humanitaire international, dont fait partie le principe de la nécessité militaire. Melzer se base donc sur ce principe pour avancer que bien que le droit humanitaire international permette les attaques sur des civils participant aux hostilités, il ne permet pas les assassinats gratuits et superflus même au  moment des hostilités<a href="http://www.legalfrontiers.ca/wp-admin/#_ftn13">[13]</a>.  Il est donc difficile de croire que l’assassinat d’une personne simplement soupçonnée (n’ayant pas fait l’objet d’une reconnaissance de culpabilité par un jugement) de terrorisme et pouvant possiblement être entourée de ses proches au moment de l’attaque puisse se conformer au principe de nécessité militaire. Toutefois, ce point de vue connaît bien des détracteurs, qui proposent que le droit devrait prendre un tournant différent puisqu’une norme internationale permettant les assassinats ciblés semblerait être en voie d’émerger en vue des récents événements et de l’utilisation massive de cette tactique par les États-Unis et les Forces de défense israélienne. Selon ces derniers, la communauté internationale devrait être appelée à définir précisément les limites d’une utilisation légale des assassinats ciblés<a href="http://www.legalfrontiers.ca/wp-admin/#_ftn14">[14]</a>. J’avance plutôt que l’on devrait militer fortement en leur défaveur et contre l’utilisation de telles tactiques plutôt que de simplement les accepter comme une pratique établie. Cela serait tomber dans un raisonnement simpliste et irait à l’encontre de la protection que l’on a accordée au droit à la vie et au principe du traitement équitable après de nombreuses années de lutte pour la reconnaissance des droits de l’homme.</p>
<p> </p>
<hr size="1" /><a href="http://www.legalfrontiers.ca/wp-admin/#_ftnref1">[1]</a> Nils Melzer, <em>Targeted Killing in International Law.</em> Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008 à la page 3.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.legalfrontiers.ca/wp-admin/#_ftnref2">[2]</a> W. J. Fisher, “Targeted Killing, Norms, and International Law”, 45 <em>Columbia Journal of Transnational Law</em> (2006-2007) 711 à la page 717.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.legalfrontiers.ca/wp-admin/#_ftnref3">[3]</a> International Humanitarian Law Research Initiative, Program on Humanitarian Policy and Conflict Research, Harvard University, “IHL PRIMER SERIES Issue #3 Targeted Killings”, Mai 2008, en ligne <a href="http://ihl.ihlresearch.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=page.viewpage&amp;pageid=1646">http://ihl.ihlresearch.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=page.viewpage&amp;pageid=1646</a>, 27/05/10, à la page 1.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.legalfrontiers.ca/wp-admin/#_ftnref4">[4]</a> <em>Ibid.</em> à la page 2.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.legalfrontiers.ca/wp-admin/#_ftnref5">[5]</a> <em>Ibid</em>. à la page 1; <em>supra</em> note 2, à la page 720.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.legalfrontiers.ca/wp-admin/#_ftnref6">[6]</a> <em>Supra</em> note 1 à la page 426; <em>supra</em> note 3 à la page 2.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.legalfrontiers.ca/wp-admin/#_ftnref7">[7]</a> <em>Supra</em> note 3 à la page 2.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.legalfrontiers.ca/wp-admin/#_ftnref8">[8]</a> <em>Supra</em> note 1 à la page 423.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.legalfrontiers.ca/wp-admin/#_ftnref9">[9]</a> <em>Supra</em> note 3 à la page 2.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.legalfrontiers.ca/wp-admin/#_ftnref10">[10]</a><em> Ibid.</em> à la page 2.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.legalfrontiers.ca/wp-admin/#_ftnref11">[11]</a> Article 2 Convention de Genève de 1949 et article 1 Protocole additionnel II; <em>supra </em>note 2 aux pages 722 et 727.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.legalfrontiers.ca/wp-admin/#_ftnref12">[12]</a> Article 51(3) Protocole additionnel I</p>
<p><a href="http://www.legalfrontiers.ca/wp-admin/#_ftnref13">[13]</a> <em>Supra</em> note 1 à la page 283.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.legalfrontiers.ca/wp-admin/#_ftnref14">[14]</a> <em>Supra</em> note 2 à la page 717.</p>
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		<title>Last Week in International Law</title>
		<link>http://www.legalfrontiers.ca/2009/11/last-week-in-international-law/</link>
		<comments>http://www.legalfrontiers.ca/2009/11/last-week-in-international-law/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Mon, 02 Nov 2009 13:48:39 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Andrew Cleland</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Criminal Law]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Human Rights]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Humanitarian]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Immigration and Refugee Law]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Public International Law]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Canada]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Corruption]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Extradition]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[ICJ]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[ICTY]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Targeted Killings]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://www.legalfrontiers.ca/?p=73</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[<h3><strong><span style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="color: #000000;">1. Prosecutor v. Karadzic</span></span></strong><span style="text-decoration: underline;"> </span></h3>
<p>Proceedings against <a href="http://www.trial-ch.org/en/trial-watch/profile/db/facts/radovan_karadzic_119.html">Radovan Karadzic</a> began on October 28, 2009, despite the accused’s refusal to attend court. The case was supposed to start on October 26 but Karadzic, who is representing himself, asked for at least eight more months to prepare his case. The court gave him 24 hours to change his mind. After he failed to appear on Tuesday, judges ordered the Prosecution to open its case and warned Karadzic to appear in court or risk having counsel assigned to him and being tried in absentia.</p>
<p><em>For more information, see the <a href="http://www.reuters.com/article/latestCrisis/idUSLR476708">Reuters article</a> or our own <a href="http://www.legalfrontiers.ca/?p=59">Lee Rovinescu’s analysis of the situation</a>.</em></p>
<p><strong><span style="text-decoration: underline;"> </span></strong></p>
<h3><strong><span style="color: #000000;">2. R. v. Munyaneza</span></strong></h3>
<p>On October 29, 2009, Justice André Denis of the Quebec Superior Court <a href="http://www.jugements.qc.ca/php/decision.php?liste=40741074&#38;doc=22300523FA5C125A4D05F083409C90E124A2F516C1615532223354DFF78CC3AB">handed down a life sentence to Désiré Munyaneza</a>, the Rwandan genocidaire who helped organize and perpetrate the mass-murder of Tutsis in the Butare area. On May 22, 2009, Justice Denis found Munyaneza guilty of two counts of genocide, two counts of crimes against humanity and three counts of war crimes. Having concluded that the killings were premeditated, Justice Denis held that <strong>Munyaneza would not be eligible for parole for 25 years.</strong></p>
<p>Munyaneza was the first person to be charged under <a href="http://www.international.gc.ca/court-cour/war-crimes-guerres.aspx?lang=eng">Canada&#8217;s Crimes Against Humanity and War Crimes Act</a>. The Act incorporates universal jurisdiction, allowing Canada to prosecute any individual present&#8230;</p>]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<h3><strong><span style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="color: #000000;">1. Prosecutor v. Karadzic</span></span></strong><span style="text-decoration: underline;"> </span></h3>
<p>Proceedings against <a href="http://www.trial-ch.org/en/trial-watch/profile/db/facts/radovan_karadzic_119.html">Radovan Karadzic</a> began on October 28, 2009, despite the accused’s refusal to attend court. The case was supposed to start on October 26 but Karadzic, who is representing himself, asked for at least eight more months to prepare his case. The court gave him 24 hours to change his mind. After he failed to appear on Tuesday, judges ordered the Prosecution to open its case and warned Karadzic to appear in court or risk having counsel assigned to him and being tried in absentia.</p>
<p><em>For more information, see the <a href="http://www.reuters.com/article/latestCrisis/idUSLR476708">Reuters article</a> or our own <a href="http://www.legalfrontiers.ca/?p=59">Lee Rovinescu’s analysis of the situation</a>.</em></p>
<p><strong><span style="text-decoration: underline;"> </span></strong></p>
<h3><strong><span style="color: #000000;">2. R. v. Munyaneza</span></strong></h3>
<p>On October 29, 2009, Justice André Denis of the Quebec Superior Court <a href="http://www.jugements.qc.ca/php/decision.php?liste=40741074&amp;doc=22300523FA5C125A4D05F083409C90E124A2F516C1615532223354DFF78CC3AB">handed down a life sentence to Désiré Munyaneza</a>, the Rwandan genocidaire who helped organize and perpetrate the mass-murder of Tutsis in the Butare area. On May 22, 2009, Justice Denis found Munyaneza guilty of two counts of genocide, two counts of crimes against humanity and three counts of war crimes. Having concluded that the killings were premeditated, Justice Denis held that <strong>Munyaneza would not be eligible for parole for 25 years.</strong></p>
<p>Munyaneza was the first person to be charged under <a href="http://www.international.gc.ca/court-cour/war-crimes-guerres.aspx?lang=eng">Canada&#8217;s Crimes Against Humanity and War Crimes Act</a>. The Act incorporates universal jurisdiction, allowing Canada to prosecute any individual present in Canada for genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity.</p>
<h3><strong><span style="color: #000000;">3. United States of America v. Cail</span></strong></h3>
<p>On October 26, 2009, the Alberta Court of Appeal upheld the Minister of Justice’s decision to extradite Ronald Cail, a Canadian citizen and Albertan resident, to the United States (US) for the distribution of child pornography.<strong> </strong></p>
<p>Having allegedly distributed the material via his computer from his Alberta home, <strong>Cail argued that the evidence did not establish that the crime at issue occurred within the foreign jurisdiction</strong>. He essentially relied on <em>s. 47(e) of the Extradition Act</em>, which provides that the Minister may refuse extradition where “none of the conduct on which the extradition partner bases its request occurred in the territory over which the extradition partner has jurisdiction”. The Court acknowledged this basis for refusal but added that it was discretionary and not absolute. It supported the Minister’s privileging of US interests in prosecuting the crime over those of Canada. In so doing, <strong>the Court implicitly privileged the use of an interests-analysis approach when making extradition decisions over the use of traditional localization rules</strong>. The court notably admitted the difficulty in determining the location of such a crime: “when someone sends child pornography over the internet the crime is partly committed at both ends of the transmission”.</p>
<p>Cail also argued that “it would be <strong>unjust or oppressive for [him] to be tried in the US for an offence allegedly committed in Alberta</strong>, in the absence of assurances<strong><em> </em></strong>regarding funding for legal assistance”. Dismissing this argument, the Court posited that “the Minister is entitled to assume that the person sought by the foreign jurisdiction will receive a fair trial there”. Drawing on Canada v. Schmidt ([1987] 1 S.C.R. 500), the Court concluded that <strong>the Minister of Justice only has to seek assurances when extradition would &#8220;shock the conscience&#8221; of Canadian</strong>s.</p>
<p><em>For more information, see the <a href="http://www.albertacourts.ab.ca/jdb/2003-/ca/criminal/2009/2009abca0345.pdf">full decision</a>.</em></p>
<h3><strong><span style="color: #000000;">4. ‘Honduras’ v. Brazil?</span></strong></h3>
<p>On October 28, 2009, <strong>the Interim Government of Honduras filed an application to institute proceedings against Brazil at the International Court of Justice</strong>. According to the <a href="http://www.icj-cij.org/presscom/files/5/15585.pdf?PHPSESSID=48a4ef490c65f187db106e18a11d70a4">ICJ press release</a>, the Interim Government seeks a declaration that Brazil has <strong>breached the principle of non-intervention</strong> by allowing ousted President, José Manuel Zelaya Rosales, and his supporters to take refuge in the Brazilian embassy and use the premises as “a platform for political propaganda and thereby [threaten] the peace and internal public order of Honduras”.</p>
<p>James Harrison of International Law Observer argues that it is <a href="http://internationallawobserver.eu/2009/10/29/honduran-military-government-brings-icj-claim-against-brazil/">“a particularly controversial [move] given the international condemnation of the coup d’etat”</a>. Brazil has already indicated that it does not consider the interim government to be competent to bring the case. <a href="http://www.ejiltalk.org/dispute-concerning-honduran-government-crisis-heads-to-the-international-court-of-justice/">As Dapo Akande writes at EJIL talk</a>, the ICJ may get to pronounce on whether the new “government” is actually the government. <em>For a preliminary analysis of this issue, see Akande’s full post.</em></p>
<p>Nonetheless, the future of the proceedings is now in question: on October 30, 2009, the interim leader of Honduras, Roberto Micheletti, signed an agreement with Zelaya to end the crisis and create a power-sharing government.</p>
<p><strong><span style="text-decoration: underline;"> </span></strong></p>
<h3><strong><span style="color: #000000;">5. French Embezzlement Probe Against African Leaders Comes to a Halt</span></strong></h3>
<p>Anti-corruption group <strong><em>Transparency International</em></strong> had accused Omar Bongo of Gabon, Denis Sassou-Nguesso of the DRC, Teodoro Obiang Nguema of Equatorial Guinea, and their relatives, of acquiring luxury homes and cars in France with African public funds. On October 29, 2009<strong>, the Court of Appeal of Paris ruled that the complaint was inadmissible because the NGO had no interest in the matter</strong>. The court justified this decision with a finding that <strong>the NGO had not suffered a direct personal injury from the alleged corruption</strong>. Transparency International has already announced that it will appeal this decision to France’s highest court.</p>
<p><em>For more information, see the <strong><a href="http://www.lemonde.fr/societe/article/2009/10/29/la-justice-refuse-d-ouvrir-une-enquete-dans-l-affaire-des-biens-mal-acquis_1260022_3224.html">le Monde</a></strong> or <a href="http://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFJOE59S08V20091029">Reuters</a> articles.</em></p>
<p><strong><span style="text-decoration: underline;"> </span></strong></p>
<h3><strong><span style="color: #000000;">6. Do Predator Drone Attacks Violate International law?</span></strong></h3>
<p>On October 27, 2009, Philip Alston, the UN Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions, warned that <strong>the United State’s use of unmanned warplanes to carry out attacks in Pakistan and Afghanistan may be illegal</strong>. Reiterating concerns that he raised with the US in June, Alston criticized the US administration for failing to reveal</p>
<blockquote><p>the legal basis on which the United States is operating the drones, [the] precautions it is taking to ensure these weapons are used strictly for purposes consistent with international humanitarian law, and [the] mechanisms … in place to review the use of the weapons (<a href="http://www.reuters.com/article/politicsNews/idUSTRE59Q51220091027">Reuters</a>).</p></blockquote>
<p><a href="http://opiniojuris.org/2009/10/28/un-special-rapporteur-on-extrajudicial-execution-criticizes-us-over-drone-attacks/"><em>Opinio Juris&#8217;</em> Kenneth Anderson</a>, who has written extensively about targeted killings, believes that the US&#8217; targeted killing program is perfectly legal but regards <strong>the unwillingness of the Obama administration to clearly state the legal basis on which this program operates to be “a serious legal policy mistake”</strong>.</p>
<h3><strong><span style="color: #003366;"><span style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="color: #000000;">7. US and EU Reach Agreement on New International Criminal Law Treaties</span></span></span></strong></h3>
<p>On October 28, 2009, the US and the EU announced an agreement for<strong> two treaties on mutual legal assistance and extradition</strong>. The new treaties seek to improve EU-US cooperation in combating terrorism, cyber crime, international fraud, human and drug trafficking, and other serious international crimes. According to the <a href="http://www.courthousenews.com/2009/10/28/U_S_E_U_Sign_Accord_on_Crime_but_Guantanamo_and_Travel_Rights_Left_Aside.htm">Courthouse News Service</a>, the new treaties “<strong>include first-time rules that would allow EU countries to refuse to extradite criminals that might be subject to the death penalty, but left dangling the issues of Guantanamo Bay prisoners</strong>”.</p>
<p><em>For more information, see the <a href="http://www.justice.gov/ag/speeches/2009/ag-speech-091028.html">US Department of Justice press release</a> and the <a href="http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/paperchase/2009/10/us-and-eu-reach-agreement-on-treaty-for.php">Jurist article</a>.</em></p>
<p><em><br />
</em></p>
<p><strong><span style="text-decoration: underline;"><span style="color: #000000;">Other notable developments and opinions</span><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #000000;">:</span></span></span></strong></p>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748703574604574500580285679074.html">Janet Albrechtsen &#8211; Has Anyone Read the Copenhagen Agreement?</a></li>
<li><em><a href="http://www.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idUSTRE59T4QN20091030"><strong>The U.N. backed negotiations on global arms trade treaty</strong></a></em></li>
<li><a href="http://edition.cnn.com/2009/US/10/28/un.cuba.vote/index.html?eref=rss_world">U.N. again condemns U.S. embargo against Cuba</a></li>
<li><strong><a href="http://www.nytimes.com/reuters/2009/10/30/world/international-us-guinea-un.html?partner=rssnyt&amp;emc=rss">U.N. Chief Ban Launched an Inquiry Into Guinea Protest Violence</a></strong></li>
</ul>
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